List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire

Sultan of the Ottoman Empire
Imperial

Suleiman I (1520–1566)
Details
First monarch Osman I (c. 1299–1323/4)
Last monarch Mehmed VI (1918–1922)
Formation c. 1299
Abolition 1 November 1922
Residence

Palaces in Istanbul:

Appointer Hereditary
Ottoman Imperial Standard
Ottoman Empire in 1683, at the height of its territorial expansion in Europe.

The sultans of the Ottoman Empire (Turkish: Osmanlı padişahları), made up solely of the members of the Ottoman dynasty (House of Osman), ruled over the transcontinental empire from its inception in 1299 to its dissolution in 1922. At its height, the Ottoman Empire spanned from Hungary in the north to Yemen in the south, and from Algeria in the west to Iraq in the east. Administered at first from the city of Bursa, the empire's capital was moved to Edirne in 1363 following its conquest by Murad I, and then to Constantinople (present-day Istanbul) in 1453 following its conquest by Mehmed II.[1]

The Ottoman Empire's early years have been the subject of varying narratives due to the difficulty of discerning fact from legend. The empire came into existence at the end of the thirteenth century, and its first ruler (and the namesake of the Empire) was Osman I. According to later, often unreliable Ottoman tradition, Osman was a descendant of the Kayı tribe of the Oghuz Turks.[2] The eponymous Ottoman dynasty he founded endured for six centuries through the reigns of 36 sultans. The Ottoman Empire disappeared as a result of the defeat of the Central Powers with whom it had allied itself during World War I. The partitioning of the Empire by the victorious Allies and the ensuing Turkish War of Independence led to the abolition of the sultanate in 1922 and the birth of the modern Republic of Turkey in 1923.[3]

State organisation of the Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire was an absolute monarchy during much of its existence. By the second half of the fifteenth century, the sultan sat at the apex of a hierarchical system and acted in political, military, judicial, social, and religious capacities under a variety of titles.[a] He was theoretically responsible only to God and God's law (the Islamic شریعت şeriat, known in Arabic as شريعة sharia), of which he was the chief executor. His heavenly mandate was reflected in Islamic titles such as "shadow of God on Earth" (ظل الله في العالم ẓıll Allāh fī'l-ʿalem) and "caliph of the face of the earth" (خلیفه روی زمین Ḫalife-i rū-yi zemīn).[4] All offices were filled by his authority, and every law was issued by him in the form of a decree called firman (فرمان). He was the supreme military commander and had the official title to all land.[5] Osman (died 1323/4) son of Ertuğrul was the first ruler of the Ottoman state, which during his reign constituted a small principality (beylik) in the region of Bithynia on the frontier of the Byzantine Empire.

After the conquest of Constantinople in 1453 by Mehmed II, Ottoman sultans came to regard themselves as the successors of the Roman Empire, hence their occasional use of the titles Caesar (قیصر Qayser) of Rûm, and emperor,[4][6][7] as well as the caliph of Islam.[b] Newly enthroned Ottoman rulers were girded with the Sword of Osman, an important ceremony that served as the equivalent of European monarchs' coronation.[8] A non-girded sultan was not eligible to have his children included in the line of succession.[9]

Although absolute in theory and in principle, the sultan's powers were limited in practice. Political decisions had to take into account the opinions and attitudes of important members of the dynasty, the bureaucratic and military establishments, as well as religious leaders.[5] Beginning in the last decades of the sixteenth century, the role of the Ottoman sultans in the government of the empire began to decrease, in a period known as the Transformation of the Ottoman Empire. Despite being barred from inheriting the throne,[10] women of the Imperial Harem—especially the reigning sultan's mother, known as the Valide Sultan—also played an important behind-the-scenes political role, effectively ruling the empire during the period known as the Sultanate of Women.[11]

Constitutionalism was only established during the reign Abdul Hamid II, who thus became the empire's last absolute ruler and its reluctant first constitutional monarch.[12] Although Abdul Hamid II abolished the parliament and the constitution to return to personal rule in 1878, he was again forced in 1908 to reinstall constitutionalism and was deposed. Since 2009, the head of the House of Osman and pretender to the defunct Ottoman throne has been Bayezid Osman, a great-grandson of Abdülmecid I.[13]

List of sultans

The table below lists Ottoman sultans, as well as the last Ottoman caliph, in chronological order. The tughras were the calligraphic seals or signatures used by Ottoman sultans. They were displayed on all official documents as well as on coins, and were far more important in identifying a sultan than his portrait. The "Notes" column contains information on each sultan's parentage and fate. For earlier rulers, there is usually a time gap between the moment a sultan's reign ended and the moment his successor was enthroned. This is because the Ottomans in that era practiced what historian Quataert has described as "survival of the fittest, not eldest, son": when a sultan died, his sons had to fight each other for the throne until a victor emerged. Because of the infighting and numerous fratricides that occurred, a sultan's death date therefore did not always coincide with the accession date of his successor.[14] In 1617, the law of succession changed from survival of the fittest to a system based on agnatic seniority (اکبریت ekberiyet), whereby the throne went to the oldest male of the family. This in turn explains why from the 17th century onwards a deceased sultan was rarely succeeded by his own son, but usually by an uncle or brother.[15] Agnatic seniority was retained until the abolition of the sultanate, despite unsuccessful attempts in the 19th century to replace it with primogeniture.[16]

№ Sultan Portrait Reigned from Reigned until Tughra Notes
Rise of the Ottoman Empire
(1299 – 1453)
1 Osman I
ĠĀZĪ (The Warrior)
 c. 1299 1323/4 —
[c]
2 Orhan
ĠĀZĪ (The Warrior)		 1323/4 1362
3 Murad I
SULTAN-İ AZAM (The Most Exalted Sultan)
HÜDAVENDİGÂR
(The devotee of God)
ŞEHÎD (Martyr) [20][b]		 1362 15 June 1389
4 Bayezid I
SULTAN-İ RÛM (Sultan of the Roman Empire)
YILDIRIM (The Thunderbolt)		 15 June 1389 20 July 1402
Ottoman Interregnum (20 July 1402 – 5 July 1413)
5 Mehmed I
ÇELEBİ (The Affable)
KİRİŞÇİ (lit. The Bowstring Maker for his support)		 5 July 1413 26 May 1421
6 Murad II
KOCA (The Great)
 25 June 1421 1444
7 Mehmed II
FĀTİḤ (The Conqueror)
فاتح		 1444 1446
  • Son of Murad II and Hüma Hatun.[18]
  • Surrendered the throne to his father after having asked him to return to power, along with rising threats from Janissaries.[24]
— Murad II
KOCA (The Great)		 1446 3 February 1451
  • Second reign;
  • Forced to return to the throne following a Janissary insurgence;[25]
  • Reigned until his death.
Growth of the Ottoman Empire
(1453 – 1550)
— Mehmed II
KAYSER-İ RÛM (Caesar of the Roman Empire)
FĀTİḤ (The Conqueror)
فاتح		 3 February 1451 3 May 1481
8 Bayezid II
VELÎ (The Saint)		 19 May 1481 25 April 1512
9 Selim I
YAVUZ (The Strong)
Hadim'ul Haramain'ish-Sharifain
(Servant of Mecca and Medina)		 25 April 1512 21 September 1520
10 Suleiman I
MUHTEŞEM (The Magnificent)

or KANÛNÎ (The Lawgiver)
قانونى

 30 September 1520 6 or 7 September 1566
Transformation of the Ottoman Empire
(1550 – 1700)
11 Selim II
SARI (The Blond)		 29 September 1566 21 December 1574
12 Murad III 22 December 1574 16 January 1595
13 Mehmed III
ADLÎ (The Just)		 27 January 1595 20 or 21 December 1603
14 Ahmed I
BAḪTī (The Fortunate)		 21 December 1603 22 November 1617
15 Mustafa I
DELİ (The Deranged)		 22 November 1617 26 February 1618
16 Osman II
GENÇ (The Young)
ŞEHÎD (The Martyr)
شهيد		 26 February 1618 19 May 1622
— Mustafa I
DELİ (The Deranged)		 20 May 1622 10 September 1623
  • Second reign;
  • Returned to the throne after the assassination of his nephew Osman II;
  • Deposed due to his mental health and confined until his death in Istanbul on 20 January 1639.[34]
17 Murad IV
SAHİB-Î KIRAN
The Conqueror of Baghdad
ĠĀZĪ (The Warrior)
غازى		 10 September 1623 8 or 9 February 1640
  • Son of Ahmed I and Mahpeyker Kösem Sultan
  • Reigned until his death.[36]
18 Ibrahim
DELİ (The Deranged)
The Conqueror of Crete
ŞEHÎD 		9 February 1640 8 August 1648
19 Mehmed IV
AVCI (The Hunter)
ĠĀZĪ (The Warrior)
غازى		 8 August 1648 8 November 1687
20 Suleiman II
ĠĀZĪ (The Warrior)
 8 November 1687 22 June 1691
21 Ahmed II
ḪĀN ĠĀZĪ (The Warrior Prince)		 22 June 1691 6 February 1695
22 Mustafa II
ĠĀZĪ (The Warrior)		 6 February 1695 22 August 1703
Stagnation and reform of the Ottoman Empire
(1700 – 1827)
23 Ahmed III
Tulip Era Sultan
ĠĀZĪ (The Warrior)		 22 August 1703 1 or 2 October 1730
24 Mahmud I
ĠĀZĪ (The Warrior)
KAMBUR (The Hunchback)		 2 October 1730 13 December 1754
25 Osman III
SOFU (The Devout)		 13 December 1754 29 or 30 October 1757
26 Mustafa III
YENİLİKÇİ (The First Innovative)		 30 October 1757 21 January 1774
27 Abdülhamid I
Abd ūl-Hāmīd (The Servant of God)
ISLAHATÇI (The Improver)
ĠĀZĪ (The Warrior)		 21 January 1774 6 or 7 April 1789
28 Selim III
BESTEKÂR (The Composer)
NİZÂMÎ (Regulative - Orderly)
ŞEHÎD (The Martyr) 		7 April 1789 29 May 1807
29 Mustafa IV 29 May 1807 28 July 1808
Modernization of the Ottoman Empire
(1827 – 1908)
30 Mahmud II
İNKILÂPÇI (The Reformer)
ĠĀZĪ (The Warrior)		 28 July 1808 1 July 1839
31 Abdülmecid I
TANZİMÂTÇI
(The Strong Reformist or
The Advocate of Reorganization)
ĠĀZĪ (The Warrior)		 1 July 1839 25 June 1861
32 Abdülaziz I
BAḪTSIZ (The Unfortunate)
ŞEHĪD (The Martyr) 		25 June 1861 30 May 1876
  • Son of Mahmud II and Pertevniyal;
  • Deposed by his ministers;
  • Found dead (suicide or murder) five days later.[51]
33 Mehmed Murad V 30 May 1876 31 August 1876
  • Son of Abdülmecid I and Shevkefza;
  • Deposed due to his efforts to implement democratic reforms in the empire;
  • Ordered to reside in Çırağan Palace where he died on 29 August 1904.[52]
34 Abdülhamid II
Ulû Sultân Abd ūl-Hāmīd Khan

(The Sublime Khan)

 31 August 1876 27 April 1909
Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire[e]
1908 – 1922)
35 Mehmed V
REŞÂD (Rashād)

(The True Path Follower)

 27 April 1909 3 July 1918
36 Mehmed VI
VAHDETTİN (Wāhīd ād-Dīn)

(The Unifier of Religion (Islam) or The Oneness of Islam)

 4 July 1918 1 November 1922
Republican Caliphate
(1 November 1922 – 3 March 1924)
— Abdülmecid II 18 November 1922 3 March 1924 —
[c]

Interregnum period (1402–1413)

№ Sultan Portrait Reigned from Reigned until Tughra Notes
Ottoman Interregnum[d]
(20 July 1402 – 5 July 1413)
— İsa Çelebi
The Co-Sultan of Anatolia		 1403–1405
(Sultan of the Western Anatolian Territory)		 1406 —
— Emir (Amir)
Süleyman Çelebi
The First Sultan of Rumelia		 20 July 1402 17 February 1411[59] —
— Musa Çelebi
The Second Sultan of Rumelia		 18 February 1411 5 July 1413[61] —
— Mehmed Çelebi
The Sultan of Anatolia		 1403–1406
(Sultan of the Eastern Anatolian Territory)

1406–1413
(The Sultan of Anatolia)		 5 July 1413 —

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sultans of the Ottoman Empire.

Notes

a1 2 : The full style of the Ottoman ruler was complex, as it was composed of several titles and evolved over the centuries. The title of sultan was used continuously by all rulers almost from the beginning. However, because it was widespread in the Muslim world, the Ottomans quickly adopted variations of it to dissociate themselves from other Muslim rulers of lesser status. Murad I, the third Ottoman monarch, styled himself sultan-i azam (سلطان اعظم, the most exalted sultan) and hüdavendigar (خداوندگار, emperor), titles used by the Anatolian Seljuqs and the Mongol Ilkhanids respectively. His son Bayezid I adopted the style Sultan of Rûm, Rûm being an old Islamic name for the Roman Empire. The combining of the Islamic and Central Asian heritages of the Ottomans led to the adoption of the title that became the standard designation of the Ottoman ruler: Sultan [Name] Khan.[64] Ironically, although the title of sultan is most often associated in the Western world with the Ottomans, people within Turkey generally use the title of padishah far more frequently when referring to rulers of the Ottoman Dynasty.[65] The full style of the Ottoman sultan once the empire's frontiers had stabilized became:[66]
"Sovereign of The Sublime House of Osman, Sultan es Selatin (Sultan of Sultans), Khakhan (Khakan of the Khans), Commander of the faithful and Successor of the Prophet of the lord of the Universe, Custodian of the Holy Cities of Mecca, Medina and Kouds (Jerusalem), Padishah of The Three Cities of Istanbul (Constantinople), Edirne (Adrianople) and Bursa, and of the Cities of Châm (Damascus) and Cairo (Egypt), of all Azerbaijan, of the Magreb, of Barkah, of Kairouan, of Alep, of the Arab and Persian Iraq, of Basra, of El Hasa strip, of Raka, of Mosul, of Parthia, of Diyâr-ı Bekr, of Cilicia, of the provinces of Erzurum, of Sivas, of Adana, of Karaman, of Van, of Barbaria, of Habech (Abyssinia), of Tunisia, of Tripoli, of Châm (Syria), of Cyprus, of Rhodes, of Crete, of the province of Morea (Peloponnese), of Bahr-i Sefid (Mediterranean Sea), of Bahr-i Siyah (Black Sea), of Anatolia, of Rumelia (the European part of the Empire), of Bagdad, of Kurdistan, of Greece, of Turkestan, of Tartary, of Circassia, of the two regions of Kabarda, of Gorjestan (Georgia), of the steppe of Kipchaks, of the whole country of the Tatars, of Kefa (Feodosiya) and of all the neighbouring regions, of Bosnia, of the City and Fort of Belgrade, of the province of Sirbistan (Serbia), with all the castles and cities, of all Arnaut, of all Eflak (Wallachia) and Bogdania (Moldavia), as well as all the dependencies and borders, and many others countries and cities"
b1 2 3 : The Ottoman Caliphate was one of the most important positions held by rulers of the Ottoman Dynasty. The caliphate symbolized their spiritual power, whereas the sultanate represented their temporal power. According to Ottoman historiography, Murad I acquired the title of caliph during his reign (1362 to 1389), and Selim I later strengthened the caliphal authority during his conquest of Egypt in 1516-1517, after the last Abbasid in Cairo, Al-Mutawakkil III, surrendered to him. However, the general consensus among modern scholars is that Ottoman rulers had used the title of caliph before the conquest of Egypt, as early as during the reign of Murad I (1362–1389), who brought most of the Balkans under Ottoman rule and established the title of sultan in 1383. It is currently agreed that the caliphate "disappeared" for two-and-a-half centuries, before being revived with the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, signed between the Ottoman Empire and Catherine II of Russia in 1774. The treaty was highly symbolic, since it marked the first international recognition of the Ottomans' claim to the caliphate. Although the treaty officialised the Ottoman Empire's loss of the Crimean Khanate, it acknowledged the Ottoman caliph's continuing religious authority over Muslims in Russia.[67] From the 18th century onwards, Ottoman sultans increasingly emphasized their status as caliphs in order to stir Pan-Islamist sentiments among the empire's Muslims in the face of encroaching European imperialism. When World War I broke out, the sultan/caliph issued a call for jihad in 1914 against the Ottoman Empire's Allied enemies, vainly inciting the subjects of the French, British and Russian empires to revolt. Abdülhamid II was by far the Ottoman sultan who made the most use of his caliphal position, and was recognized as caliph by many Muslim heads of state, even as far away as Sumatra.[68] He had his claim to the title inserted into the 1876 Constitution (Article 4).[69]
c1 2 : Tughras were used by 35 out of 36 Ottoman sultans, starting with Orhan in the 14th century, whose tughra has been found on two different documents. No tughra bearing the name of Osman I, the founder of the empire, has ever been discovered,[70] although a coin with the inscription "Osman bin Ertuğrul" has been identified.[17] Abdülmecid II, the last Ottoman caliph, also lacked a tughra of his own, since he did not serve as head of state (that position being held by Mustafa Kemal, President of the newly founded Republic of Turkey) but as a religious and royal figurehead.
d^ : The Ottoman Interregnum, also known as the Ottoman Triumvirate (Turkish: Fetret Devri), was a period of chaos in the Ottoman Empire which lasted from 1402 to 1413. It started following the defeat and capture of Bayezid I by the Turco-Mongol warlord Tamerlane at the Battle of Ankara, which was fought on 20 July 1402. Bayezid's sons fought each other for over a decade, until Mehmed I emerged as the undisputed victor in 1413.[71]
e^ : The dissolution of the Ottoman Empire was a gradual process which started with the abolition of the sultanate and ended with that of the caliphate 16 months later. The sultanate was formally abolished on 1 November 1922. Sultan Mehmed VI fled to Malta on 17 November aboard the British warship Malaya.[55] This event marked the end of the Ottoman Dynasty, not of the Ottoman State nor of the Ottoman Caliphate. On 18 November, the Grand National Assembly (TBMM) elected Mehmed VI's cousin Abdülmecid II, the then crown prince, as caliph.[72] The official end of the Ottoman State was declared through the Treaty of Lausanne (24 July 1923), which recognized the new "Ankara government," and not the old Istanbul-based Ottoman government, as representing the rightful owner and successor state. The Republic of Turkey was proclaimed by the TBMM on 29 October 1923, with Mustafa Kemal as its first President.[73] Although Abdülmecid II was a figurehead lacking any political power, he remained in his position of caliph until the office of the caliphate was abolished by the TBMM on 3 March 1924.[69] Mehmed VI later tried unsuccessfully to reinstall himself as caliph in the Hejaz.[74]

References

  1. ↑ Stavrides 2001, p. 21
  2. ↑ Kafadar, Cemal (1995). Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State. p. 122. That they hailed from the Kayı branch of the Oğuz confederacy seems to be a creative "rediscovery" in the genealogical concoction of the fifteenth century. It is missing not only in Ahmedi but also, and more importantly, in the Yahşi Fakih-Aşıkpaşazade narrative, which gives its own version of an elaborate genealogical family tree going back to Noah. If there was a particularly significant claim to Kayı lineage, it is hard to imagine that Yahşi Fakih would not have heard of it.
    • Lowry, Heath (2003). The Nature of the Early Ottoman State. SUNY Press. p. 78. ISBN 0-7914-5636-6. Based on these charters, all of which were drawn up between 1324 and 1360 (almost one hundred fifty years prior to the emergence of the Ottoman dynastic myth identifying them as members of the Kayı branch of the Oguz federation of Turkish tribes), we may posit that...
    • Lindner, Rudi Paul (1983). Nomads and Ottomans in Medieval Anatolia. Indiana University Press. p. 10. In fact, no matter how one were to try, the sources simply do not allow the recovery of a family tree linking the antecedents of Osman to the Kayı of the Oğuz tribe. Without a proven genealogy, or even without evidence of sufficient care to produce a single genealogy to be presented to all the court chroniclers, there obviously could be no tribe; thus, the tribe was not a factor in early Ottoman history.
  3. ↑ Glazer 1996, "War of Independence"
  4. 1 2 Findley 2005, p. 115
  5. 1 2 Glazer 1996, "Ottoman Institutions"
  6. ↑ Toynbee 1974, pp. 22–23
  7. ↑ Stavrides 2001, p. 20
  8. ↑ Quataert 2005, p. 93
  9. ↑ d'Osman Han 2001, "Ottoman Padishah Succession"
  10. ↑ Quataert 2005, p. 90
  11. ↑ Peirce, Leslie. "The sultanate of women". Channel 4. Archived from the original on 2007-12-03. Retrieved 2009-04-18.
  12. ↑ Glazer 1996, "External Threats and Internal Transformations"
  13. ↑ Bardakçı, Murat (25 September 2009). "Şehzadenin ardından basın öyle hatalar yaptı ki..." (in Turkish). Haberturk.com. Retrieved 2010-07-16.
  14. ↑ Quataert 2005, p. 91
  15. ↑ Quataert 2005, p. 92
  16. ↑ Karateke 2005, pp. 37–54
  17. 1 2 Kafadar, Cemal (1995). Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State. pp. 60, 122.
  18. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Lowry, Heath (2003). The Nature of the Early Ottoman State. SUNY Press. p. 153.
  19. ↑ "Sultan Orhan Gazi". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
  20. ↑ Lambton, Ann; Lewis, Bernard (1995). The Cambridge History of Islam: The Indian sub-continent, South-East Asia, Africa and the Muslim west. 2. Cambridge University Press. p. 320. ISBN 9780521223102. Retrieved 14 March 2015.
  21. ↑ "Sultan Murad Hüdavendigar Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
  22. ↑ "Sultan Yıldırım Beyezid Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
  23. ↑ "Sultan Mehmed Çelebi Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
  24. 1 2 "Chronology: Sultan II. Murad Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-04-07.
  25. ↑ Kafadar 1996, p. xix
  26. ↑ "Chronology: Fatih Sultan Mehmed Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2010-07-15.
  27. ↑ "Sultan II. Bayezid Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
  28. ↑ "Yavuz Sultan Selim Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
  29. ↑ "Kanuni Sultan Süleyman Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
  30. ↑ "Sultan II. Selim Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
  31. ↑ "Sultan III. Murad Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
  32. ↑ "Sultan III. Mehmed Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
  33. ↑ "Sultan I. Ahmed". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
  34. 1 2 "Sultan I. Mustafa". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
  35. ↑ "Sultan II. Osman Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
  36. ↑ "Sultan IV. Murad Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
  37. ↑ "Sultan İbrahim Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
  38. ↑ "Sultan IV. Mehmed". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
  39. ↑ "Sultan II. Süleyman Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
  40. ↑ "Sultan II. Ahmed Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
  41. ↑ "Sultan II. Mustafa Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
  42. ↑ "Sultan III. Ahmed Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
  43. ↑ "Sultan I. Mahmud Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
  44. ↑ "Sultan III. Osman Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
  45. ↑ "Sultan III. Mustafa Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
  46. ↑ "Sultan I. Abdülhamit Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
  47. ↑ "Sultan III. Selim Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
  48. ↑ "Sultan IV. Mustafa Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
  49. ↑ "Sultan II. Mahmud Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
  50. ↑ "Sultan Abdülmecid Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
  51. ↑ "Sultan Abdülaziz Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
  52. ↑ "Sultan V. Murad Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
  53. ↑ "Sultan II. Abdülhamid Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
  54. ↑ "Sultan V. Mehmed Reşad Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
  55. 1 2 "Sultan VI. Mehmed Vahdettin Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
  56. ↑ As̜iroğlu 1992, p. 13
  57. ↑ As̜iroğlu 1992, p. 17
  58. ↑ As̜iroğlu 1992, p. 14
  59. ↑ Nicholae Jorga: Geschishte des Osmanichen (Trans :Nilüfer Epçeli) Vol 1 Yeditepe yayınları, İstanbul,2009,ISBN 975-6480 17 3 p 314
  60. ↑ Nicholae Jorga: Geschishte des Osmanichen (Trans :Nilüfer Epçeli) Vol 1 Yeditepe yayınları, İstanbul, 2009, ISBN 975-6480 17 3 p 314
  61. ↑ Joseph von Hammer:Osmanlı Tarihi cilt I (condensation: Abdülkadir Karahan), Milliyet yayınları, İstanbul. p 58-60.
  62. ↑ Prof. Yaşar Yüce-Prof. Ali Sevim: Türkiye tarihi Cilt II, AKDTYKTTK Yayınları, İstanbul, 1991 p 74-75
  63. ↑ Joseph von Hammer:Osmanlı Tarihi cilt I (condensation: Abdülkadir Karahan), Milliyet yayınları, İstanbul. p. 58-60.
  64. ↑ Peirce 1993, pp. 158–159
  65. ↑ M'Gregor, J. (July 1854). "The Race, Religions, and Government of the Ottoman Empire". The Eclectic Magazine of Foreign Literature, Science, and Art. Vol. 32. New York: Leavitt, Trow, & Co. p. 376. OCLC 6298914. Retrieved 2009-04-25.
  66. ↑ Ozgen, Korkut. "The Ottomans History". TheOttomans.org. Archived from the original on 2008-01-11. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
  67. ↑ Glassé, Cyril, ed. (2003). "Ottomans". The New Encyclopedia of Islam. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press. pp. 349–351. ISBN 978-0-7591-0190-6. OCLC 52611080. Retrieved 2009-05-02.
  68. ↑ Quataert 2005, pp. 83–85
  69. 1 2 Toprak 1981, pp. 44–45
  70. ↑ Mensiz, Ercan. "About Tugra". Tugra.org. Archived from the original on 2007-10-25. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
  71. ↑ Sugar 1993, pp. 23–27
  72. ↑ As̜iroğlu 1992, p. 54
  73. ↑ Glazer 1996, "Table A. Chronology of Major Kemalist Reforms"
  74. ↑ Steffen, Dirk (2005). "Mehmed VI, Sultan". In Tucker, Spencer. World War I: Encyclopedia. Volume. III: M–R. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. p. 779. ISBN 978-1-85109-420-2. OCLC 162287003. Retrieved 2009-05-02.

Bibliography

This article is issued from Wikipedia - version of the 12/4/2016. The text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share Alike but additional terms may apply for the media files.