List of words that may be spelled with a ligature
This list of words that may be spelled with a ligature in English encompasses words which have letters that may, in modern usage, either be rendered as two distinct letters or as a single, combined letter. This includes AE being rendered as Æ and OE being rendered as Œ.
Until the early twentieth century, the œ and æ ligatures had been commonly used to indicate an etymological connection with Latin or Greek. Since then they have fallen out of fashion almost completely and are now only used occasionally. They are more commonly used for the names of historical people, to evoke archaism, or in literal quotations of historical sources. These ligatures are proper letters in some Scandinavian languages, and so are used to render names from those languages, and likewise names from Old English. Some American spellings replace ligatured vowels with a single letter, for example fœtus is spelled fetus.
The fl and fi ligatures, among others, are still commonly used to render modern text in fine typography. Page-layout programs such as QuarkXPress and Adobe InDesign can be configured to automatically replace the individual characters with the appropriate ligatures. However this is a typographic feature and not part of the spelling.
This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it.
Æ
Note that some words contain an ae which may not be written æ because the etymology is not from the Greek -αι- or Latin -ae- diphthongs. These include:
- In instances of aer (starting or within a word) when it makes the sound IPA [ɛə]/[eə] (air). Comes from the Latin āër, Greek ἀήρ.
- When ae makes the diphthong /eɪ/ (lay) or /aɪ/ (eye).
- When ae is found in a foreign phrase or loan word and it is unacceptable to use the ligature in that language. For example, when in a German loan word or phrase, if the a with an umlaut (ä) is written as ae, it is incorrect to write it with the ligature.
| Non-ligature form | Ligature form | Other forms | Etymology |
|---|---|---|---|
| aeciospore | æciospore | — | combination of New Latin aecium and New Latin spora→spore (aeci |
| aecidium | æcidium | (aecium) | New Latin aecidium, from Greek αἰκία (aikia) |
| aecium | æcium | (aecidium) | New Latin aecidium, from Greek αἰκία (aikia) |
| aedicule | ædicule | edicule (AmE) | Latin aediculum |
| Aegis | Ægis | Egis (AmE) | Latin from Greek Αἰγίς (Aigis) |
| Aelfred | Ælfred | Alfred | Old English—see Alfred |
| Aeolian | Æolian | Eolian (AmE) | Latin Aeolis from Greek mythology Αἰολίς (Aiolis) |
| Aeolis | Æolis | — | Latin Aeolis, from Greek Αἰολίς (Aiolis) |
| aeon | æon | eon (AmE) | Late Latin aeon, from Greek αἰών (aion). |
| aera | æra | era (AmE) | |
| aerose | ærose | — | Latin aerosus, from aes |
| aerugite | ærugite | (aerugo) | Latin aerugo, from aes |
| aerugo | ærugo | (aerugite) | Latin aerugo, from aes |
| aeschynite | æschynite | eschynite (AmE) | Greek αἰσχύνω (aischuno) |
| aesculin | æsculin | esculin (AmE) | |
| aesculetin | æsculetin | esculetin (AmE) | |
| Aesop | Æsop | Esop | Ancient Greek Αἴσωπος (Aisōpos) |
| aesthetic | æsthetic | esthetic (AmE - rare) | Greek αἰσθετικός (aisthetikos) |
| aestival | æstival | estival (AmE) | Latin aestivus, from aestas |
| aestivation | æstivation | estivation (AmE) | Latin aestivare, from aestivus, from aestas |
| Aether | Æther | ether (AmE) | Latin aether, from Greek αἰθήρ (aither) |
| aethereal | æthereal or ætherial | ethereal (AmE), ethereal (AmE - rare), aetherial (BrE - rare) | |
| Aethrioscope | Æthrioscope | Ethrioscope | Greek αἴθριον (aithrion) |
| aetiology | ætiology | etiology (AmE) | |
| algae | algæ | algas (very rare) | |
| ambilevous | ambilævous | — | From Latin ambilævus (ambi- ("both") + lævus ("left")), a calque of Ancient Greek ἀμφαρίστερος (ampharisteros). |
| anaemia | anæmia | anemia (AmE) | |
| anaesthesia | anæsthesia | anesthesia (AmE) | |
| anapaest | anapæst | anapest (AmE) | |
| antennae | antennæ | antennas | |
| archaeology | archæology | archeology (AmE) | |
| Athenaeum | Athenæum | Atheneum (AmE) | |
| azotaemia | azotæmia | azotemia (AmE) | |
| bacteraemia | bacteræmia | bacteremia (AmE) | |
| bacteraemia | bacteræmia | bacteremia (AmE) | |
| Caedmon | Cædmon | Cadmon | |
| Caesar | Cæsar | Cesar (AmE – rare) | |
| caesium | cæsium | cesium (AmE) | |
| chaetophorous | chætophorous | chetophorous | |
| chimaera | chimæra | chimera (AmE) | |
| coaeval | coæval | coeval | |
| curriculum vitae | curriculum vitæ | — | Latin meaning ‘course of life’, vitæ |
| cyclopaedia | cyclopædia | cyclopedia | |
| daedal | dædal | dedal | |
| diaeresis | diæresis | dieresis (AmE) | |
| daemon | dæmon | demon (AmE) | Greek: δαιμων (daimon) |
| Egypt | Ægypt | Aegypt (Archaic) | From the Latinised Ægyptus |
| encyclopaedia | encyclopædia | encyclopedia (AmE) | |
| enigma | ænigma | aenigma | |
| era | æra | aera (BrE - rare) | Late Latin aera, probably from Latin æs (plural æra) |
| et cetera | et cætera | et caetera, etc., &c. | Latin phrase |
| eternal | æternal | aeternal | |
| Ethiopia | Æthiopia | Aethiopia | |
| Eudaemonic | eudæmonic | eudemonic | |
| faeces | fæces | feces (AmE) | |
| fairy | færie | faerie | |
| formulae | formulæ | formulas | |
| fraenum | frænum | Frenum | |
| Gaea | Gæa | Gaia | |
| haemoglobin | hæmoglobin | hemoglobin (AmE) | |
| haemolysis | hæmolysis | hemolysis (AmE) | |
| haemophilia | hæmophilia | hemophilia (AmE) | |
| haemorrhage | hæmorrhage | hemorrhage (AmE) | |
| haemorrhoid | hæmorrhoid | hemorrhoid (AmE) | |
| hyaena | hyæna | hyena | |
| hypaethral | hypæthral | hypethral | |
| hyperbolae | hyperbolæ | hyperbolas (AmE) | |
| hypnopedia | hypnopædia | — | |
| ischaemia | ischæmia | ischemia (AmE) | |
| judaeo | judæo | judeo | |
| judaeophobe | judæophobe | judeophobe (AmE) | |
| leukaemia | leukæmia | leukemia (AmE) | |
| medieval | mediæval | mediaeval (BrE) | |
| nebulae | nebulæ | nebulas | plural – New Latin → Latin ("mist"); akin to Old High German nebul ("fog") → Greek nephelē, nephos ("cloud") |
| nymphae | nymphæ | nymphs | |
| nymphaea | nymphæa | — | |
| orthopaedic | orthopædic | orthopedic (AmE) | |
| paean | pæan | pean (AmE) | |
| paeon | pæon | — | |
| pedagogue | pædagogue or pædagog | pedagog (AmE), (paedagogue and paedagog exist but are both somewhat archaic) | |
| pederasty | pæderasty | paederasty | |
| paediatrics | pædiatrics | pediatrics (AmE) | |
| paediatrician | pædiatrician | pediatrician (AmE) | |
| paediatrist | pædiatrist | pediatrist (AmE) | |
| paedophile | pædophile | pedophile (AmE) | |
| palaeobotany | palæobotany | paleobotany (AmE) | |
| palaeocene | palæocene | paleocene (AmE) | |
| palaeoclimatology | palæoclimatology | paleoclimatology (AmE) | |
| palaeography | palæography | palaeography (AmE) | |
| palaeolithic | palæolithic | paleolithic (AmE) | |
| palaeography | palæography | paleography (AmE) | |
| palaeontology | palæontology | paleontology (AmE) | |
| palaeozoic | palæozoic | paleozoic (AmE) | |
| Panacaea | Panacæa | Panacea (AmE) | |
| Pangaea | Pangæa | Pangea (AmE) | |
| parabolae | parabolæ | parabolas (AmE) | |
| personae | personæ | personas | |
| premium | præmium | praemium | |
| primeval | primæval | primaeval (BrE - rare) | |
| Quaestor | Quæstor | — | |
| Rhaetia | Rhætia | — | |
| septicaemia | septicæmia | septicemia (AmE) | |
| scarabaeid | scarabæid | — | |
| scarabaeoid | scarabæoid | — | |
| subpoenae | subpœnæ | — | |
| supernovae | supernovæ | supernovas | |
| synaeresis | synæresis | syneresis (AmE) | |
| synaesthesia | synæsthesia | synesthesia (AmE) | |
| toxaemia | toxæmia | toxemia (AmE) | |
| uraemia | uræmia | uremia (AmE) | |
| vertebrae | vertebræ | ||
| viraemia | viræmia | viremia (AmE) |
Œ
| Common form | Ligature form | Other forms | Etymology |
|---|---|---|---|
| amenorrhoea | amenorrhœa | amenorrhea (AmE) | From Greek α (a) + μένόρροια (mēnorroia) |
| amoeba | amœba | ameba (AmE—rare) | New Latin amoeba, from Greek ἀμοιβή (amoibē) |
| apnea | apnœa | apnoea (BrE) | New Latin apnoea, from Greek απνοια (apnoia) |
| coeliac | cœliac | celiac (AmE) | Latin coeliacus, from Greek κοιλιακος (koiliakos) |
| diarrhea | diarrhœa | diarrhoea (BrE) | Middle English diaria, from Late Latin diarrhoea, from Greek διάρροια (diarroia) |
| dyspnea | dyspnœa | dyspnoea | |
| ecology | œcology | oecology | |
| economics | œconomics | oeconomics | |
| economy | œconomy | oeconomy | |
| ecumenism | œcumenism | oecumenism, rarely ocumenism | |
| esophagus | œsophagus | oesophagus (BrE) | |
| estrogen | œstrogen | oestrogen (BrE) | |
| estrus | œstrus | oestrus | |
| federal | fœderal | foederal – archaic; thus virtually never found | Latin foedus |
| fetid | fœtid | foetid (BrE) | Latin fētidus |
| fetor | fœtor | foetor (BrE) | Middle English fetoure, from Latin fētor |
| fetus | fœtus | foetus (BrE) | Middle English fetus, from Latin fētus |
| gonorrhoea | gonorrhœa | gonorrhea (AmE) | Greek γονόρροια (gonorrhoia) |
| homeomorphism | homœomorphism | homoeomorphism (BrE) | From Greek ὅμοιος (homoios) + μορφος (morphos) |
| homeopath | homœopath | homoeopath (BrE) | From Greek ὅμοιος (homoios) + πάθος (pathos) |
| homeostasis | homœostasis | homoeostasis (BrE) | From Greek ὅμοιος (homoios) + στάσις (stasis) |
| homoeozoic | homœozoic | homeozoic (AmE—rare) | From Greek ὅμοιος (homoios) + ζωικός (zōikos) |
| hors d'oeuvre | hors d'œuvre | — | French hors d'œuvre |
| logorrhoea | logorrhœa | logorrhea (AmE) | From Greek |
| maneuver | manœuvre | manoeuvre (BrE) | French manœuvre, from Old French maneuvre, from Medieval Latin manuopera, from Latin manū operārī |
| oedema | œdema | edema (AmE) | |
| Oedipus | Œdipus | Oidipous, Oidipus (both rare) | Greek Οἰδίπους (Oidipous) |
| oeillade | œillade | ||
| oenology | œnology | enology (AmE) | From Greek οίνος (oinos) + λόγος (logos) |
| oenomel | œnomel | ||
| oenothera | œnothera | ||
| oestrus | œstrus | estrus (AmE) | Greek οἶστρος (oistros) ‘gadfly or frenzy’ |
| oeuvre | œuvre | — | French œuvre, from Old French uevre, from Latin opera |
| onomatopoeia | onomatopœia | ||
| penology | pœnology | ||
| Phoebe | Phœbe | ||
| phoenix | phœnix | phenix (rare) | |
| subpoena | subpœna | subpena (rare) | |
| tragedy | tragœdy | tragoedy |
Notes
- ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ The variants that change '-æ' or '-œ' to '-s' are not variants in spelling, but the same meaning of the word with a different way of forming plurals.
- ^ "caesium" (see article) is preferred by the IUPAC.
Also, ligatures may be used in personal names as well, i.e. Maecenus as Mæcenus, or Timothy as Timothæ, etc.
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