Timeline of women's legal rights in the United States (other than voting)

Timeline of women's legal rights in the United States (other than voting) represents formal legal changes and reforms regarding women's rights in the United States. That includes actual law reforms as well as other formal changes, such as reforms through new interpretations of laws by precedents. The right to vote is exempted from the timeline: for that right, see Timeline of women's suffrage in the United States. The timeline also excludes ideological changes and events within feminism and antifeminism: for that, see Timeline of feminism in the United States.


Before the 19th century

1718

19th century

1821
1835
1839
1840
1841
1842
1843
1844
1845
1846
1848
1849

1850–1874

1850
1852
1854
1855
1856
1857
1859
1860
1861
1865
1867
1868
1869
1871
1872
1873

In places like Washington D.C., where the federal government had direct jurisdiction, the act also made it a misdemeanor, punishable by fine and imprisonment, to sell, give away, or have in possession any "obscene" publication.[9] Half of the states passed similar anti-obscenity statutes that also banned possession and sale of obscene materials, including contraceptives.[10]

The law was named after its chief proponent, Anthony Comstock. Due to his own personal enforcement of the law during its early days, Comstock received a commission from the postmaster general to serve as a special agent for the U.S. Postal Services.[9]

1874

1875–1899

1875
1877
1878
1879
1880
1881
1887
1889
1894
1895
1896

20th century

1900–1939

1907
1908
1922
1931
1936

1940–1969

1948
1961
1963

The law provides (in part) that:

No employer having employees subject to any provisions of this section [section 206 of title 29 of the United States Code] shall discriminate, within any establishment in which such employees are employed, between employees on the basis of sex by paying wages to employees in such establishment at a rate less than the rate at which he pays wages to employees of the opposite sex in such establishment for equal work on jobs[,] the performance of which requires equal skill, effort, and responsibility, and which are performed under similar working conditions, except where such payment is made pursuant to (i) a seniority system; (ii) a merit system; (iii) a system which measures earnings by quantity or quality of production; or (iv) a differential based on any other factor other than sex [ . . . . ] [22] For the first nine years of the EPA, the requirement of equal pay for equal work did not extend to persons employed in an executive, administrative or professional capacity, or as an outside salesperson. Therefore, the EPA exempted white-collar women from the protection of equal pay for equal work. In 1972, Congress enacted the Educational Amendment of 1972, which amended the FLSA to expand the coverage of the EPA to these employees, by excluding the EPA from the professional workers exemption of the FLSA.
1964

In very narrowly defined situations, an employer is permitted to discriminate on the basis of a protected trait where the trait is a bona fide occupational qualification (BFOQ) reasonably necessary to the normal operation of that particular business or enterprise. To prove the bona fide occupational qualifications defense, an employer must prove three elements: a direct relationship between the protected trait and the ability to perform the duties of the job, the BFOQ relates to the "essence" or "central mission of the employer's business", and there is no less-restrictive or reasonable alternative (United Automobile Workers v. Johnson Controls, Inc., 499 U.S. 187 (1991) 111 S.Ct. 1196). The Bona Fide Occupational Qualification exception is an extremely narrow exception to the general prohibition of discrimination based on protected traits (Dothard v. Rawlinson, 433 U.S. 321 (1977) 97 S.Ct. 2720). An employer or customer's preference for an individual of a particular religion is not sufficient to establish a Bona Fide Occupational Qualification (Equal Employment Opportunity Commission v. Kamehameha School — Bishop Estate, 990 F.2d 458 (9th Cir. 1993)). There are partial and whole exceptions to Title VII for four types of employers:

1965

Although the Bill of Rights does not explicitly mention "privacy", Justice William O. Douglas wrote for the majority that the right was to be found in the "penumbras" and "emanations" of other constitutional protections, such as the self-incrimination clause of the Fifth Amendment. Justice Arthur Goldberg wrote a concurring opinion in which he used the Ninth Amendment in support of the Supreme Court's ruling. Justice Arthur Goldberg and Justice John Marshall Harlan II wrote concurring opinions in which they argued that privacy is protected by the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. Justice Byron White also wrote a concurrence based on the due process clause.

1966
1967
1968

1970–1999

1970
1971
1972
No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any education program or activity receiving federal financial assistance.
1973
1974

Failure to comply with the Equal Credit Opportunity Act's Regulation B can subject a financial institution to civil liability for actual and punitive damages in individual or class actions. Liability for punitive damages can be as much as $10,000 in individual actions and the lesser of $500,000 or 1% of the creditor's net worth in class actions.[44]

1975
1976
1977
1978

The Act covers discrimination "on the basis of pregnancy, childbirth, or related medical conditions." It only applies to employers with 15 or more employees.[52][53] Employers are exempt from providing medical coverage for elective abortions - except in the case that the mother's life is threatened - but are required to provide disability and sick leave for women who are recovering from an abortion.[54]

1979

(a) Every person who performs or induces an abortion shall prior thereto have made a determination based on his experience, judgment or professional competence that the fetus is not viable, and if the determination is that the fetus is viable or if there is sufficient reason to believe that the fetus may be viable, shall exercise that degree of professional skill, care and diligence to preserve the life and health of the fetus which such person would be required to exercise in order to preserve the life and health of any fetus intended to be born and not aborted and the abortion technique employed shall be that which would provide the best opportunity for the fetus to be aborted alive so long as a different technique would not be necessary in order to preserve the life or health of the mother.

Doctors who failed to adhere to the provisions of this section were liable to civil and criminal prosecution "as would pertain to him had the fetus been a child who was intended to be born and not aborted." Franklin and others sued, arguing that the provision was both vague and overbroad. In a 6-3 decision written by Roe author Harry Blackmun, the Supreme Court agreed, finding that requiring a determination "if... the fetus is viable or if there is sufficient reason to believe the fetus may be viable" was insufficient and impermissibly vague guidance for physicians who might face criminal liability if a jury disagrees with their judgment.

The law was challenged as violating the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution by a woman, who argued that the law discriminated on the basis of sex because so few women were veterans.[57]

1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993

Alexandria Women's Health Clinic reported that the protesters violated 42 U.S.C. 1985(3), which prohibits protests to deprive "any person or class of persons of the equal protection of the laws, or of equal privileges and immunities under the laws."[78]

1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999

21st century

2000
2001
2002
2003
2005
2006

Darlene Jespersen was a 20-year employee at Harrah's Casino in Reno, Nevada. In 2000, Harrah's advanced a "Personal Best" policy, which created strict standards for employee appearance and grooming, which included a requirement that women wear substantial amounts of makeup. Jespersen was fired for non-compliance with its policy. Jespersen argued the makeup requirement was contrary to her self-image, and that the requirement violated Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.[98][99]

In 2001, Jespersen filed a lawsuit in United States District Court for the District of Nevada, which found against her claim. The district court opined that the policy imposed "equal burdens" on both sexes and that the policy did not discriminate based on immutable characteristics of her sex. The 9th Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed the decision, but on rehearing en banc, reversed part of its decision. The full panel concluded, in contrast to the previous rulings, that such grooming requirements could be challenged as sex stereotyping in some cases, even in view of the decision in Price Waterhouse v. Hopkins. However, the panel found that Jespersen had not provided evidence that the policy had been motivated by stereotyping, and affirmed the district court's finding for Harrah's.[100][101][102]

2007
2009

The bill also:

2010
2011

The Court agreed to hear argument on whether Federal Rule of Civil Procedure, Rule 23(b)(2), which provides for class-actions if the defendant's actions make injunctive relief appropriate, can be used to file a class action that demands monetary damages. The Court also asked the parties to argue whether the class meets the traditional requirements of numerosity, commonality, typicality, and adequacy of representation.[127]

The Supreme Court ruled unanimously that the class should not be certified in its current form but was only 5-4 on the reason for that and whether the class could continue in a different form.

2012
2013
2014

For such companies, the Court's majority directly struck down the contraceptive mandate, a regulation adopted by the US Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) under the Affordable Care Act (ACA) requiring employers to cover certain contraceptives for their female employees, by a 5-4 vote.[135] The court said that the mandate was not the least restrictive way to ensure access to contraceptive care, noting that a less restrictive alternative was being provided for religious non-profits, until the Court issued an injunction 3 days later, effectively ending said alternative, replacing it with a government-sponsored alternative for any female employees of closely held corporations that do not wish to provide birth control.[136]

2015
2016

See also

References

  1. ↑ "Closely held" corporations are defined by the Internal Revenue Service as those which a) have more than 50% of the value of their outstanding stock owned (directly or indirectly) by 5 or fewer individuals at any time during the last half of the tax year; and b) are not personal service corporations. By this definition, approximately 90% of U.S. corporations are "closely held", and approximately 52% of the U.S. workforce is employed by "closely held" corporations. See Blake 2014, Washington Post.
  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 B. Zorina Khan (November 20, 2013). The Democratization of Invention: Patents and Copyrights in American Economic Development, 1790–1920. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521747202.
  2. ↑ Boswell, Angela (2000). "Married Women's Property Rights and the Challenge to the Patriarchal Order: Colorado County, Texas". In Coryell, Janet L. Negotiating Boundaries of Southern Womanhood: Dealing With the Powers That Be. University of Missouri Press. p. 92.
  3. 1 2 3 4 Roberts, Evan (14–16 September 2006), Women's Rights and Women's Labor: Married Women's Property Laws and Labor Force Participation, 1860–1900, Economic History Association annual meeting, Pittsburgh (PA)
  4. ↑ New York State (1848), Married Women's Property Act (PDF)
  5. 1 2 3 4 Beard, Charles Austin; Beard, Mary Ritter. History of the United States. Forgotten Books. ISBN 9781606202166.
  6. ↑ Richard J Evans (1979). Kvinnorörelsens historia i Europa, USA, Australien och Nya Zeeland 1840–1920 (The Feminists: Women's Emancipation Movements in Europe, America and Australasia, 1840–1920) Helsingborg: LiberFörlag Stockholm. ISBN 91-38-04920-1 (Swedish)
  7. ↑ Smith, Bonnie G., ed. (2008). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Women in World History, Volume 1. Oxford University Press.
  8. ↑ Lebsock, Suzanne D. (May 1977). "Radical Reconstruction and the Property Rights of Southern Women". The Journal of Southern History. Southern Historical Association. 43 (2): 195–216. doi:10.2307/2207345. JSTOR 2207345.
  9. 1 2 3 Horowitz, Helen Lefkowitz. Rereading Sex. New York: Random House, 2002.
  10. ↑ Beisel, Nicola. Imperiled Innocents. New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1997.
  11. ↑ Tsiang 1942, p. 114
  12. ↑ Tsiang 1942, p. 115
  13. ↑ Martin 2005
  14. ↑ Tsiang, I-Mien (1942). The question of expatriation in America prior to 1907. Johns Hopkins Press. p. 115. OCLC 719352.
  15. ↑ Marian L. Smith (1998), "Women and Naturalization, ca. 1802-1940", Prologue Magazine, 30 (2), retrieved 2009-01-03
  16. ↑ For Teachers: A Brief Introduction to Asian American History, Smithsonian Asian Pacific American Program, retrieved 2009-01-03
  17. ↑ Timeline of Asian American History, Digital History: University of Houston, retrieved 2009-01-03
  18. ↑ Gardner, Martha Mabie (2005), The Qualities of a Citizen: Women, Immigration, and Citizenship, 1870-1965, Princeton University Press, p. 146, ISBN 978-0-691-08993-5 ISBN 0-691-08993-0, ISBN 978-0-691-08993-5
  19. ↑ "Biographical Note". The Margaret Sanger Papers. Sophia Smith Collection, Smith College, Northampton, Mass. 1995. Retrieved 2006-10-21.
  20. 1 2 3 Cushman, Clare (2001). Supreme Court Decisions and Women's Rights. Washington D.C.: CQ Press. p. 29.
  21. ↑ "The Equal Pay Act Turns 40". U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. Archived from the original on June 26, 2012.
  22. 1 2 "Equal Pay Act of 1963". U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission.
  23. ↑ "Civil Rights Act of 1964 – CRA – Title VII – Equal Employment Opportunities – 42 US Code Chapter 21". finduslaw. Retrieved 2010-06-06.
  24. ↑ Parr v. Woodmen of the World Life Insurance Company, 791 F.2d 888 (11th Cir. 1986).
  25. ↑ "Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967". Finduslaw.com. Retrieved 2010-06-06.
  26. ↑ Griswold v. Connecticut, 381 U.S. 479 (1965).
  27. ↑ New York Times: John Herbers, "Help Wanted: Picking the Sex for the Job," September 28, 1965, accessed March 25, 2012
  28. ↑ National Organization for Women: "The Founding of NOW, accessed March 25, 2012
  29. ↑ "Title VIII: Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity - HUD". Portal.hud.gov. Retrieved 2015-07-06.
  30. 1 2 "Newsweek Agrees to End Sex Discrimination Policy". Eugene Register-Guard, via Google News. Associated Press. August 28, 1970.
  31. ↑ Lynn Povich (2013). The Good Girls Revolt: How the Women of Newsweek Sued their Bosses and Changed the Workplace. PublicAffairs. ISBN 978-1610393263.
  32. ↑ Office of Population Affairs Clearinghouse. "Fact Sheet: Title X Family Planning Program." January 2008.
  33. ↑ U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Office of Population Affairs. "Family Planning."
  34. ↑ Gaye, Luna (1990). "Understanding gender-based wage discrimination: legal interpretation and trends of pay equity in higher education". Journal of Law & Education (19): 371. ...first cases to discuss the Bennett Amendment, and consequently to consider the relationship between the EPA and Title VII, was Shultz v. Wheaton Glass Co...
  35. ↑ Moore, Mary Virginia; Yohannan T. Abraham (1994). "The legal and juridical posture". Public Personnel Management. 23. Retrieved 2008-10-11. VII was examined in Shultz v. Wheaton Glass Co....
  36. 1 2 Woody, Robert Henley (1984). The Law and the Practice of Human Services. Jossey-Bass Publishers. p. 203. ISBN 0-87589-602-2.
  37. ↑ Nettie and Florence Cronise, Ohio's first female lawyers, honored in Tiffin - Story
  38. ↑ Reed v. Reed - Significance, Notable Trials and Court Cases - 1963 to 1972
  39. ↑ See Roe v. Wade, 410 U.S. 113, 162 ("We repeat, however, that the State does have an important and legitimate interest in preserving and protecting the health of the pregnant woman, whether she be a resident of the State or a non-resident who seeks medical consultation and treatment there, and that it has still another important and legitimate interest in protecting the potentiality of human life.").
  40. ↑ Technically, the case was decided under the Fifth Amendment's Due Process Clause, not under the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, since the latter applies not to the federal government but to the states. However, because Bolling v. Sharpe, through the doctrine of reverse incorporation, made the standards of the Equal Protection Clause applicable to the federal government, it was for practical purposes an addition not to due process, but rather to equal protection jurisprudence.
  41. ↑ USAID Public website USAID's Family Planning Guiding Principles and U.S. Legislative and Policy Requirements Retrieved September 10, 2012
  42. ↑ Dlabay, Les R.; Burrow, James L.; Brad, Brad (2009). Intro to Business. Mason, Ohio: South-Western Cengage Learning. p. 470. ISBN 978-0-538-44561-0. The Equal Credit Opportunity Act prohibits creditors from denying a person credit because of age, race, sex, or marital status.
  43. ↑ Regulation B, Equal Credit Opportunity 12 CFR 202.14(b) as stated in Closing the Gap: A Guide to Equal Opportunity Lending, Federal Reserve System of Boston.
  44. ↑ Greenhouse, Linda (2005). Becoming Justice Blackmun. New York: Times Books. pp. 217–218. ISBN 0-8050-8057-0.
  45. 1 2 Full text opinion from Justia.com
  46. ↑ Young, Julia L. (1977). "Constitutional Law: Elimination of Spousal and Parental Consent Requirements for Abortion". Washburn Law Journal. 16: 463–464. Retrieved 16 April 2014.
  47. 1 2 3 Abortion Funding Ban Has Evolved Over The Years
  48. 1 2 The Hyde Amendment at 35: a new abortion divide
  49. ↑ Cushman, C., 2001, Supreme Court Decisions and Women's Rights. CQ Press. pp. 122-8
  50. ↑ Text of the Act from the United States Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
  51. ↑ Facts About Pregnancy Discrimination from the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
  52. ↑ Pregnancy Discrimination from the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
  53. ↑ Congress and the Nation, s.vv. "1798," "Pregnancy Disability." Vol. V, 1977-1980, p. 797
  54. ↑ "Historical Timeline".
  55. ↑ Bellotti v. Baird (Bellotti II), 443 U.S. 622, 643 (1979)
  56. 1 2 "Oyez: Personnel Administrator MA v. Feeney, 442 U.S. 256 (1979), U.S. Supreme Court Summary". The Oyez Project website. The Oyez Project. 2008. Retrieved 2008-09-08.
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  63. ↑ "Mississippi University for Women v. Hogan". Law.cornell.edu. Retrieved 2012-07-20.
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  65. 1 2 "The Oyez Project, Grove City College v. Bell" , 465 U.S. 555 (1984)
  66. ↑ "Title IX." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 19 Nov. 2009
  67. ↑ Suggs, Welsh. A Place on the Team. Princeton, NJ.: Princeton University Press, 2005.
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  69. ↑ Greenhouse, Linda. Becoming Justice Blackmun. Times Books. 2005. Page 183.
  70. ↑ "Legislative History of Title IX" National Organization for Women. June 27, 2007.
  71. ↑ Goldstein, Leslie. "Gender Stereotyping and the Workplace: Price Waterhouse v. Hopkins (1989)." 2006. The Constitutional and Legal Rights of Women, 3rd ed. Los Angeles: Roxbury, 2006. 167-75. Print.
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  74. ↑ Presser, Arlynn Leiber; Bertin, Joan (June 1990). "Women at Work: Should 'Fetal Protection' Policies Be Upheld". ABA Journal. American Bar Association. 76 (6): 38–39.
  75. ↑ Morris, Danielle Keat. "Fordham International Law Journal Planned Parenthood v. Casey: From U.S. "Rights Talk" to Western European "Responsibility Talk"".
  76. ↑ Colman McCarthy. "Scalia Outreasons Stevens in Bray Case: METRO Edition." Star Tribune: 14.A. 1993. Print.
  77. ↑ United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on Labor and Human Resources. The Freedom of Access to Clinic Entrances Act of 1993 : Hearing before the Committee on Labor and Human Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Third Congress, First Session, on S. 636 ... may 12, 1993. United States:, 1993. Print.
  78. ↑ Pub.L. No. 103-112, 107 Stat. 1082 (1993).
  79. ↑ Id. § 509, 107 Stat. at 1113 (the 1994 Hyde Amendment).
  80. ↑ "Landmark Title IX Cases in History" Gender Equity in Sport. February 23, 2006.
  81. ↑ "Hate Crime Sentencing Act". Anti-Defamation League. Retrieved 10 December 2009.
  82. ↑ Dugger, Celia W. "June 9-15; Asylum From Mutilation",The New York Times, 16 June 1996.
  83. ↑ Zabus 2004, p. 110.
  84. ↑ Greenhouse, Linda (February 20, 1997). "High Court Upholds 15-Foot Buffer Zone At Abortion Clinics". The New York Times.
  85. ↑ "Breastfeeding Amendment".
  86. ↑ "Treasury and General Government Appropriations Act, 2000". Retrieved 13 July 2012. section 647.
  87. ↑ Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act of 2003, Enrolled as Agreed to or Passed by Both House and Senate (HTML); * same, from the U.S. Government Printing Office (PDF)
  88. ↑ Gonzales v. Carhart, 550 U.S. ____ (2007). Findlaw.com. Retrieved 2007-04-19. ("The medical community has not reached unanimity on the appropriate name for this D&E variation. It has been referred to as 'intact D&E,' 'dilation and extraction' (D&X), and 'intact D&X' ....For discussion purposes this D&E variation will be referred to as intact D&E....A straightforward reading of the Act's text demonstrates its purpose and the scope of its provisions: It regulates and proscribes, with exceptions or qualifications to be discussed, performing the intact D&E procedure.")
  89. ↑ 410 U.S. 113
  90. ↑ Supreme Court docket 04-967
  91. 1 2 "EEOC Agrees to Landmark Resolution of Discrimination Case Against Abercrombie & Fitch," Press Release from the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, Nov. 18, 2004.
  92. ↑ "The Look of Abercrombie & Fitch: Retail Store Accused Of Hiring Attractive, Mostly White Salespeople," CBS 60 Minutes segment on Gonzalez case, Dec. 5, 2003.
  93. 1 2 3 "Abercrombie & Fitch Bias Case Is Settled," The New York Times, November 17, 2004.
  94. 1 2 "Abercrombie settles 3 bias suits: Retailer to pay $40 million; judge has to rule on plan," San Francisco Chronicle, November 17, 2004.
  95. ↑ A Local Law to amend the administrative code of the city of New York, in relation to equal access to bathroom facilities, New York City Council
  96. ↑ Confessore, Nicholas (26 May 2005). "Council Passes a Bill to Shorten the Line at the Ladies' Room". New York Times. Retrieved 2009-05-10.
  97. ↑ Moldover, Judith A. (April 28, 2006). "9th Circuit: Cosmetics cause of action OK'd". HR Magazine. Retrieved 14 November 2012.
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  102. ↑ There were, however, two people in California in 2004 charged with "conspiring" to commit an act of FGM. Adem was the first American prosecuted for actually performing the procedure.
  103. ↑ Broussard, Patricia A. (2008). "Female genital mutilation: exploring strategies for ending ritualized torture; shaming, blaming, and utilizing the Convention against Torture". Duke Journal of Gender Law & Policy. Durham: Duke University School of Law. 15: 19–48. Retrieved 2008-10-23.
  104. ↑ Luscombe, Belinda (2010-05-11). "Has a U.S. Pediatrics Group Condoned Genital Cutting?". Time. Retrieved 2010-05-18.
  105. ↑ Brock, J. (2006). "Adem gets 10 years in prison for mutilation". Gwinnett Daily Post. Retrieved November 4, 2006.
  106. ↑ "Man Convicted in Daughter's Mutilation". The New York Times. Associated Press. 2006-11-02. Retrieved 2008-12-01.
  107. ↑ "Nondiscrimination on the Basis of Sex in Education Programs or Activities Receiving Federal Financial Assistance". Federal Register. 71 (206). October 25, 2006. Retrieved 2012-06-24.
  108. ↑ Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act of 2003 (Enrolled as Agreed to or Passed by Both House and Senate)
  109. ↑ http://www.nyulawreview.org/sites/default/files/pdf/NYULawReview-84-6-Weinberg.pdf
  110. ↑ Ted Frank, American Enterprise Institute, "The Ledbetter Case and the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act," Feb. 4, 2008, http://communities.justicetalking.org/blogs/day04/archive/2008/02/04/the-ledbetter-case.aspx. The Supreme Court's Ledbetter ruling specifically noted that the plaintiff could have sued instead under the Equal Pay Act, observing that plaintiff "having abandoned her claim under the Equal Pay Act, asks us to deviate from our prior decisions in order to permit her to assert her claim under Title VII." http://supct.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/05-1074.ZO.html
  111. ↑ See the U.S. Supreme Court's decision in Jones v. R.R. Donnelley & Sons, 541 U.S. 369 (2004), http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/02-1205.ZS.html.
  112. ↑ Statement released after the President rescinds "Mexico City Policy" (whitehouse.gov, 1-25-09) http://www.whitehouse.gov/statement-released-after-the-president-rescinds/
  113. ↑ "Matthew Shepard Hate Crimes Act passes Congress, finally". Mercurynews.com. Retrieved December 30, 2012.
  114. ↑ "Obama Signs Hate Crimes Bill". nytimes.com. Retrieved September 29, 2013.
  115. ↑ "President Obama Signs Hate Crime Prevention Act". Fox News. October 28, 2009. Retrieved September 29, 2013.
  116. ↑ "Human Rights Campaign". hrc.org. Retrieved September 29, 2013.
  117. ↑ "Hate Crimes Protections 2007". National Gay and Lesbian Task Force. Archived from the original on September 27, 2007. Retrieved December 9, 2009.
  118. 1 2 Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act. Government Printing Office. Page 459.
  119. ↑ Landau, Elizabeth (April 9, 2010). "Breastfeeding rooms hidden in health care law". CNN.
  120. ↑ Grady, Denise (March 29, 2010). "Overhaul Will Lower the Costs of Being a Woman". The New York Times.
  121. ↑ Shear, Michael D. (March 24, 2010), "Obama signs executive order on abortion out of sight of media glare", The Washington Post, Retrieved March 24, 2010
  122. ↑ "White House Defends Abortion-related Executive Order, Even as Obama Signs it", Fox News, March 24, 2010, Retrieved March 24, 2010
  123. ↑ "Obama issues executive order on abortion", UPI.com, March 21, 2010, Retrieved March 21, 2010
  124. ↑ Montgomery, Lori & Murray, Shailagh (March 21, 2010) "In deal with Stupak, White House announces executive order on abortion", The Washington Post, Retrieved March 21, 2010
  125. ↑ AAUW Stands with the Women of Wal-Mart During U.S. Supreme Court Hearing, American Association of University Women.
  126. ↑ 10-277 Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. v. Dukes, Questions Presented, Supreme Court of the United States.
  127. ↑ "Next Steps to Comply with Health Care Reform". The National Law Review. Schiff Hardin LLP. 2012-10-10. Retrieved 2012-10-10.
  128. ↑ "Affordable Care Act Rules on Expanding Access to Preventive Services for Women".
  129. ↑ Kliff, Sarah (1 August 2012). "Five facts about the health law's contraceptive mandate". The Washington Post. Retrieved 29 November 2012.
  130. ↑ Hassan, Yasmeen (3 January 2013). "As Global Consensus Accelerates, Obama Strengthens Federal Law Protecting Girls in the Fight Against Female Genital Mutilation". The Huffington Post.
  131. ↑ Willis, David (Jun 30, 2014). "Hobby Lobby case: Court curbs contraception mandate". BBC News. Retrieved Jun 30, 2014.
  132. ↑ O'Donoghue, Amy Joi (Jul 5, 2014). "Group protests Hobby Lobby decision on birth control". Deseret News. Retrieved Jul 30, 2014.
  133. ↑ >Haberkorn, Jennifer; Gerstein, Josh (Jun 30, 2014). "Supreme Court sides with Hobby Lobby on contraception mandate". Politico. Retrieved Jun 30, 2014.
  134. ↑ See:
  135. ↑ See:
  136. ↑ 07/10/2015 12:45 pm EDT (July 10, 2015). "White House Finds Way Around Hobby Lobby Birth Control Decision". Huffingtonpost.com. Retrieved 2015-07-13.
  137. ↑ Rankin, Kenrya. "This Policy Gives Native Women Equal Access to Emergency Contraception". Colorlines. Retrieved 2015-10-24.
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  142. ↑ "Title VIII: Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity - HUD". Portal.hud.gov. Retrieved 2015-07-06.
  143. ↑ Justices Seem Split in Case on Birth Control Mandate, Adam Liptak, New York Times, March 23, 2016
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  145. ↑ Zubik, slip op. at 3-4.
  146. ↑ Zubik, slip op. at 4.
  147. ↑ Zubik, slip op. at 2-3 (Sotomayor, J., concurring).
  148. ↑ "How Bad Does Domestic Violence Have to Be Before You Can't Have a Gun?". 2016-02-22. Retrieved 2016-06-27.
  149. ↑ "Supreme Court Rules Domestic Abusers Can Lose Their Gun-Ownership Rights".
  150. ↑ Lopez, German (27 June 2016). "The Supreme Court quietly handed gun control advocates a small victory".
  151. ↑ Green, Emma (November 13, 2015). "A New Supreme Court Challenge: The Erosion of Abortion Access in Texas". Atlantic. Retrieved January 26, 2016.
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